Writing to Christoph von Dohna on 29 September 1608, Sarpi complained, “The King of France has written that Venice is in favor of religion, and he has played a very bad role.” “How did it happen that that great principle was put to sleep?” he wrote to another correspondent that summer, referring to the French mediation of the Interdict crisis; “That is also the reason why it is impossible to incite others.” [Cozzi, p. 259]. In addition to these fine projects, he has been in a big rush to set up this league of Protestants in Germany, and although he has not been able to do much in this direction, in any case I am sure that if he can contribute to this, he’ll do it.” [Federico Seneca, “La Politica Veneziana Dopo L’Interdetto,” Padova, 1957., pp. Schenk then turned his attention to another member of the Vergerio clan. Stephan Ehses, “Der Reformentwurf des Kardinals Nikolaus Cusanus,” in “Historisches Jahrbuch,” XXXII, 1911, pp. Luther’s contemporary and sometime associate Philip Melanchton saw Luther in exactly these terms: “Manichean delirium.” Luther attempted to portray his own viewpoint as a return to St. Augustine’s stress on grace as against the ethical notions of the late Graeco-Roman world, but this was disingenuous. Wars between England and France, and between England and Spain, were the essence of Venetian policy. In 1505, Mutianus Rufus found Spalatin a job at the monastery in Georgenthal, where he was responsible for purchasing books for the library. One such opinion came from the Franciscan Friar Francesco Giorgi, a member of the Venetian Zorzi patrician clan. Contarini had died before this division became pronounced. These major objectives are emphasized in much of Counter-Reformatory literature, particularly women’s acquisition of strong religious morals aimed at preserving chastity until matrimony as well as the pursuit of the practical skills of “preserving” and managing their husbands’ property and wealth. Later, Spalatin would go on to become Saxony’s chancellor or prime minister. At the death of Paul III Farnese in 1549, Pole turned out to be the papal candidate of the Emperor Charles V and of the Spirituali. Then Marcellus II Cervini died after a month in office, and was succeeded with Venetian help by Caraffa, who took the name of Paul IV. Through this thought I was changed from great fear and suffering to happiness. The Counter-Reformation What is called the Catholic Reformation or Counter-Reformation is said to begin with the pontificate of Paul III Farnese. In 1590, there was a serious famine, and food supplies did not return to normal until 1594. The Council of Trent. But later Sarpi and the Venetians found reason to be bitterly disappointed with the refusal of James I and Charles I massively to intervene on the European continent. As it turned out, Pole died a few hours after Mary. The second is true but crude, permitting us to know little and that rather of things than of their causes. With Paolo Paruta, we already have the economic man enshrined in the myths of Adam Smith: “The desire to grow rich is as natural in us as the desire to live. (Hoess, p. 131) When Luther was called to Augsburg, Spalatin secured an escort, by indirect means. See more. Bernardo Bembo, the Venetian ambassador to Florence and the Florence handler for the Venetian Signoria was part of this (“The Venetians are called the new Romans,” he wrote. The forces of Germany, if they were unified, would be very great, but because of the divisions which exist among them, they are only small….” [Alberi, p. 21] Venetian publishing and Venetian networks would now be mobilized to guarantee the spread of Lutheranism and its variants all over Germany in order to perpetuate and exacerbate these divisions. The meetings were often held in the gardens of Cortese’s San Giorgio Maggiore. Here Spalatin acted as Luther’s intercessor, especially after he became the confessor to the vacillating and indecisive Frederick in 1517-18. Devout Catholic Defender of theFaith but he neededa male heir 1527 his wife. The creation and preservation of a Protestant regime in England was one of the principal goals of Venetian policy. When Ferdinand sent troops to restore his authority, the Bohemian nobles deposed him and decided to elect a new king. During the Interdict battle, Sarpi’s intelligence agencies went into action to create the preconditions for such a war, not in Italy, but beyond the Alps in Germany. That successor would be Elizabeth, under the dominant influence of Cecil, who had early gone over to the opposition to Bloody Mary Tudor. Practice: The Renaissance in Venice in the 1500s. Giorgi was the author of De Harmonia Mundi (Venice 1525), a mystical work with influences deriving from the Hebrew Cabala. The Protestant Union was organized by Prince Christian of Anhalt, the senior advisor to the Elector Palatine. Contarini was a pupil of the Padua Aristotelian Pietro Pomponazzi, who … The state was close to bankruptcy, and had to borrow from the Chigi of Siena. Sarpi was also a pragmatist, arguing that “we despise knowledge of things of which we have no need.” [Pensiero 289] Sarpi was also a cultural relativist, and a precursor of David Hume: Every culture has its own idea of order, he said, and “therefore the republics, the buildings, the politics of the Tartars and the Indians are different.” [Pensiero 159]. Leroy Froom demonstrates the five-fold manifestation of the Counter Reformation as follows: (1) The formal recognition of the order of Jesuits, (2) The actions and decrees of the Council of Trent, (3) The Catholic counter systems of prophetic interpretations, (4) The establishment of the Index, (5) The world spread revival of persecution (The Prophetic Faith of Our Fathers, Vol. Later, Vergerio was to become an active publicist in the Protestant cause. When the Electoral Palatine, now styling himself King Frederick of Bohemia, was routed at the battle of the White Mountain in 1620, he went into the history books as the “unlucky Winter King.” Let us attempt further to reveal the fine Venetian hand behind these events, which are the opening rounds of the Thirty Years’ War. Paolo Sarpi, “Scelte lettere inedite” (Capolago, Canton Ticino, Switzerland, 1833). Such Venetian-Rosicrucian irrationalism may provide the key to the Winter King’s legendary mental lability and failures of strategic planning. In any case, Henry’s death increased the tensions among the German Protestant leaders, since they had now been deprived of their protector. It provides a snapshot of the situation with four pertinent case studies representing the broad spectrum of Venice's churches. Aurelius Augustinus, “The Teacher, Thre Free Choice of the Will, Grace and Free Will,” trans. Frederick V was encouraged to believe that with the aid of a few troops from Venetian-allied Savoy, plus the Bohemians, and support from a few other German states, he could break the Spanish- Austrian- Catholic hold on central Europe. During the campaign leading up to the rout at the White Mountain, Thurn was constantly disputing with the Palatine Elector’s generals about who was in command. Christian was notorious for his adventurism and brinksmanship; one German account of these events speaks of “Anhalt’s crazy plans” [ADB]; these included the ambitious project of wiping out the House of Hapsburg and making Frederick Holy Roman Emperor, a thoroughly utopian undertaking. Counter-Reformation Italy k. j. p. lowe Goldsmiths’ College, University of London. Joseph Schnitzer, “Peter Delphin General des Camaldulenserordens 1444-1525” (Munich, 1926). 21-22]. Pp. Regardless of this opposition, however, women still managed to exert some influence on economic and social relations through the acquisition of dowries and management of the family’s wealth and income. Felix Gilbert, “The Pope, His Banker, and Venice” (Cambridge, Mass., 1980). The Mass was revived and laws forbidding religious dissent or heresy were restored, leading to a counter-Reformation in which 300 Protestants were executed in three years, including Cranmer himself. We’re in S G M across the Grand Canal from S M in Venice. The Contarini commission at the outset sought to identify the cause of the evils and abuses of the church, including simony, multiple benefices, bishops who did not live in their sees, moral failures, sybaritic lifestyles among prelates, and the like. What is called the Catholic Reformation or Counter- Reformation is said to begin with the pontificate of Paul III Farnese. In reality, the Venetians used the conflict around the Interdict to inflame the religious passions of Europe so as to set the stage for a revival of the wars of religion. In the 16th century, Venice and its possession Padua were temporarily places of refuge for Italian Protestants. ), as was his son Pietro Bembo. The Sarpi networks were fully mobilized; Dudley Carleton, the Anglo- Venetian representative of James I in the Hague, wrote in September 1619 that “this business in Bohemia is like to put all Christendom into combustion.”. Henry’s death meant that France, a power Venice ultimately hated and feared just as much as Spain, would be plunged again into the internal conflicts epitomized by the St. Bartholomew’s massacre of 20,000 Huguenots in 1572; Pope Gregory XIII had called those killings “more agreeable than fifty Lepantos.” [R.R. Quirini had seen that war was imminent. Pope Paul V Borghese responded on profile by declaring Venice under the papal interdict, which remained in force for almost a year, well into 1607. Francesco Toledo, a professor at the Collegio Romano, attributed to Aristotle’s logic a perfection so total that “scarcely anyone has surpassed him in any point.” “Moreover,” added Toledo, “it appears that he has been more received by the church than other philosophers, especially in the last millennium; and he has been used in the instruction of youth to the exclusion of all others.” [Bouwsma, p. 296] Interestingly, Contarini’s friend Cardinal Morone was released after two years in jail and became the presiding officer of the final session of the Council of Trent. An honest attempt at reform would have based itself explicitly on these proposals. The Counter-Reformation was the official reaction of the Roman Catholic Church against the Protestant Reformation; the Counter-Reformation was slow at the beginning. As has just been stressed, the benchmark for civilization, culture, religion and morality in the last half millennium is constituted by the work of Cardinal Nicolaus of Cusa, the founder of modern science, and of his associate Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini, Pope Pius II. It should then come as no surprise to find Martin Luther, a few years later, packaging his own reform movement in a very similar “anti-Aristotelian” garb, despite the Manichean dualism in Luther which led right back to Aristotle’s method. A pope who wanted reform could push the Counter-Reformation forward. Publishing Women: Salons, the Presses, and the Counter-Reformation in Sixteenth-Century Italy. by Robert P. Russell (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 1968). These works depicted the lives of female saints and virtuous women in an effort to inspire women to imitate them. Contarini and Pole had both corresponded with Erasmus, and Paul III offered to make him a cardinal on one occasion. The orders were made with Aldus Manutius in Venice, with payment by way of the Fugger copper mines in Hohenkirchen. After Luther had publicly burned Leo X’s bull of excommunication in December 1520, Frederick protected him from extradition. Karl Gillert (ed. First came the creation of the Protestant Union of 1608, helped by the crushing of the free city of Donauwoerth by the counter- reformation under Maximilian I of Bavaria. Shipbuilding in the arsenal diminished. Gasparo Contarini corresponded with Quirini and Giustinian for more than a decade. Another of Mutianus’s network was Johann Lang of Erfurt, who would shortly reside in an Augustinian monastery alongside a certain Martin Luther, who had studied in Erfurt after 1501 at the same time as Spalatin. Women were able to find diverse means of establishing themselves invitation had been in the Protestant ;! Christian training in obedient wifehood and devout motherhood a theological debate, Spalatin would go to. 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